English Grammar Exercises & Map (A1–C2) — ESL Practice

Index of grammar points — A1 to C2

Every grammar point on the map, level by level. Open a level to see its points and a summary of each, then use the map above for the full teaching sequence, worked examples and the 40-question practice set.

A1 — Discovery

Communicative survival · first contact · fixed expressions

Nouns & articles

Indefinite article (a / an) — Use a before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound to introduce a singular countable noun for the first time. The rule follows the SOUND, not the written letter.
Definite article (the) — Use the when both speaker and listener can identify the thing: second mention, unique referents, shared knowledge, superlatives (the best), rivers/seas/mountain ranges and plural country names (the Amazon, the Alps, the USA), and musical instruments (the piano). Use NO article for general plurals/uncountables, meals, and institutions used for their purpose (go to school/hospital) — but the for the building. Pronunciation: /ðə/ before consonants, /ði/ before vowels. Varieties differ for hospital: British in hospital (as a patient), American in the hospital. The exercises here use school, church and prison, where both varieties drop the article.
Regular plurals (-s / -es) — Add -s to most nouns; add -es after -s, -x, -z, -ch, -sh; change -y → -ies after a consonant. Three spoken endings: /s/ (cats), /z/ (dogs), /ɪz/ (buses — extra syllable).
Irregular plurals (man/men, child/children) — Some nouns change their vowel or whole form in the plural and take no -s (memorize the pairs). A few are invariable (sheep, fish, deer), and most nouns ending in -f/-fe change to -ves.
Uncountable nouns (information, water) — Uncountable nouns have no plural and cannot take a/an; they take a singular verb. Express quantity with some (affirmative), any (questions/negatives), or a measure phrase. Common traps: information, advice, news, furniture, luggage, progress, research.

Verbs & tenses

The verb 'be' (am / is / are) — Forms: I am, you are, he/she/it is, we are, they are. Spoken contractions: I'm, you're, he's, we're, they're. Negative: add not (I'm not, she isn't, they aren't). Question: put be first, before the subject. Use be for identity, origin, age, prices and physical states.
The verb 'have got' / 'have' — For possession, relationships and states, American English uses plain have with do in questions and negatives: I have a car. Do you have a pen? She doesn't have a dog. British English also says have got in speech: I've got a car. Have you got a pen? She hasn't got a dog. Both are correct. Never mix the two systems (✗ Do you have got?), and keep have got for possession only, not for routines (✗ I've got breakfast at 8).
Present simple (habits & facts) — Use the present simple for routines, permanent states, and general facts. He/she/it adds -s (spelling: -es after o/ch/sh/ss/x; -ies after consonant + y). Questions and negatives use do/does + bare infinitive — the verb loses its -s.
Present continuous (now) — Form: am/is/are + verb-ing. Use it for an action in progress right now, a temporary situation, a fixed future arrangement, or a changing trend. Stative verbs (know, want, like, see, hear) are not normally used in continuous form.
Imperative (commands & instructions) — Use the base verb (bare infinitive) with no subject pronoun. Negative = Don't + verb. Add please to soften. Used for instructions, directions, offers, advice, and warnings. Do + verb adds emphasis/insistence (Do sit down!); Never + verb is a strong negative (Never run here.). The understood subject is always you.
'there is' / 'there are' — Use there is with singular and uncountable nouns, there are with plurals, to say something exists in a place. Do not confuse with it is (identification). Questions invert (Is there…? / Are there…?); the past is there was (sing.) / there were (pl.). In questions/negatives use any, not some.

Adjectives

Adjective + noun order (a red car) — An adjective goes immediately before the noun it describes and never moves after it: a red car, expensive shoes. After be, seem, look and other linking verbs the adjective follows the verb instead. When several adjectives pile up, the usual order is opinion, size, age, color, origin.
Adjectives are invariable (no plural -s) — An English adjective has one single form. It never changes for gender or for number, whether it stands before a noun or after be. The only endings an adjective can take are the comparative -er and the superlative -est, never a plural -s.
Possessive adjectives (my, your, his...) — Possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) agree with the OWNER, not with the thing owned. His/her is determined by the person's gender, not the noun's. Don't confuse its (possessive) with it's (= it is). There is no change before a vowel (Eng. my apple, unlike Fr. mon/ma). Formal generic owner = one's.
Demonstratives (this / that / these / those) — This/these = near the speaker. That/those = far. This/that = singular. These/those = plural. They can stand alone (pronoun) or before a noun (adjective). Special uses: on the phone (This is John); these days = nowadays; that refers back to something just mentioned/experienced (That was great!). French uses only number (ce/ces); English also marks distance.

Pronouns

Subject pronouns (I, you, he...) — English always requires an explicit subject pronoun — the subject can never be dropped. I, you, he, she, it, we, they replace the subject noun. It is used for things, animals (informal), weather, time, distance, and as a dummy subject (It is important to…). Formal generic subject = one.
Object pronouns (me, you, him...) — The object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, them. They replace a noun after the verb (I know her) or after a preposition (with them). Only you and it look the same as the subject form; the others all change.
Possessive pronouns (mine, yours...) — The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs. They stand alone and replace possessive adjective + noun: my car → mine. They are never followed by a noun and never take an apostrophe. There is no possessive pronoun for it.

Adverbs & negation

Negation with 'not' / don't / doesn't — With be and with modals, put not straight after the verb: she is not, we cannot. With every other verb use do not (don’t) or does not (doesn’t) plus the base form: I don’t work, he doesn’t work. The -s of the third person moves onto does.
Adverbs of frequency (always, often, never) — Frequency adverbs go after be but before other main verbs. Scale: always (100%) → usually → often → sometimes → rarely → never (0%). They cannot go between verb and object.

Syntax & discourse

Word order (SVO) — English depends on word order because nouns have no case endings: the subject comes first, then the verb, then the object: The cat (S) eats (V) fish (O). Place comes before time (I saw a movie at the theater last night), and an adverb never goes between the verb and its object (✗ I like very much pizza → ✓ I like pizza very much). Frequency adverbs go before the main verb: She always plays tennis. Questions put the auxiliary before the subject.
Yes/no questions (do / does, be) — With be, simply put the verb before the subject: Are you ready? With all other verbs, begin with do or does + subject + base verb: Do they live here? Does she work? The -s sits on does, so the main verb has none. Short answers repeat the auxiliary.
Wh- questions (what, where, when, who) — Place the question word first, then the auxiliary, then the subject, then the main verb. When who/what is the subject, no auxiliary is needed.
Basic connectors (and, but, or, because) — And adds information; but contrasts; or gives an alternative; because introduces a reason clause. These are coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or) or a subordinating one (because). So introduces a result (= therefore). Use because + clause but because of + noun. In negatives, or replaces and (I don't drink tea or coffee).

Number & quantity

Cardinal numbers (0–100) — One to twelve are separate words; 13 to 19 end in -teen (thirteen, fifteen, eighteen); the tens end in -ty (twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety). In between, join tens and units with a hyphen: twenty-one, forty-six. 100 is a hundred.
some / any — Use some in affirmatives and in offers/requests (expecting 'yes'). Use any in negatives and questions. Both work with uncountable nouns and plural countables (not singular countables — not 'some book'). In affirmatives, any can mean free choice (= it doesn't matter which): Take any seat.

A2 — Elementary

Everyday situations · describing · simple narration

Nouns & articles

Possessive 's (Tom's car) — Add 's to a singular noun or irregular plural to show possession. For regular plurals already ending in -s, add only an apostrophe. 's always attaches to the owner, not the thing owned. For inanimate things, of is usually preferred (the leg of the table). Joint possession marks only the last owner (Tom and Anna's house = shared); separate possession marks each (Tom's and Anna's cars). Time expressions also take 's (a week's vacation, yesterday's news).
Zero article (general plurals & uncountables) — Use no article (zero article) when speaking about things in general: plural countables and uncountables. As soon as you make a specific reference, the is needed. Also use zero article with: languages (English is global), sports (play tennis), meals (have breakfast), and institutions seen as a concept (be at school, in hospital as a patient — BrE). The returns for the building (go to the hospital as a visitor). Varieties differ for hospital: British in hospital (as a patient), American in the hospital. The exercises here use school, church and prison, where both varieties drop the article.

Verbs & tenses

Past simple (regular -ed) — Add -ed to the base verb; the form is the same for every person: I worked, she worked. Spelling: a final -e takes only -d (live → lived); consonant + y becomes -ied (study → studied); a single short stressed vowel doubles the consonant (stop → stopped). Use it for finished actions at a definite past time.
Past simple (irregular verbs) — Many frequent verbs make the past with a vowel change or a completely different word instead of -ed: go → went, see → saw, take → took, buy → bought, come → came, have → had. Some do not change at all: put, cut, let. The form is identical for every person, and be is the only verb with two forms, was and were.
Past continuous — Form: was/were + verb-ing. Use it for an action in progress at a specific past time, or as background to a shorter past simple event (when/while). Stative verbs (know, like, want, be) have no continuous form (✗ I was knowing → ✓ I knew). With always it can express past annoyance (He was always interrupting me!).
'going to' future (plans & predictions) — Form: am/is/are + going to + base verb. Use it for a plan or intention decided before the moment of speaking, and for a prediction based on evidence you can see right now. Negative: I’m not going to…; question: Are you going to…? Note the fixed to, which never disappears.
'will' future (decisions & predictions) — Will + base verb (same for all persons). Use for spontaneous decisions, predictions without evidence, promises, and offers. Won't = will not. Modals take no -s and no to (✗ she wills / will to go). Shall (mainly BrE, formal) is used with I/we for offers and suggestions: Shall I help?
Present perfect (experience & recent past) — Form: have/has + past participle. Use for past experiences (no specific time), recent events with present relevance, and with already/yet/just/ever/never. Never use with a finished time expression. For unfinished states use for + duration (for 5 years) and since + a start point (since 2019). Common with superlatives (the best film I've ever seen).
Modals: can / can't (ability & permission) — Can + base verb for ability and informal permission. Can't = cannot. No -s in the third person, no infinitive marker to. Could is the past form for ability; could/may are more polite/formal for permission. Can also expresses general possibility (It can get cold here). Prohibition: can't = not permitted.
Modals: must / have to (obligation) — Must = strong internal obligation or logical deduction. Have to = external obligation (rules, laws). In the negative: mustn't = prohibition; don't have to = no obligation (these are not interchangeable). Must has no past/future of its own — use had to (past) and will have to (future). Have got to (informal) and need to mean roughly the same as have to.
Modals: should (advice) — Should + base verb gives advice or a recommendation. It is weaker than must. Negative: shouldn't. No -s in the third person. Ought to is an almost identical (slightly formal) synonym. Should can also express expectation (The train should arrive at 3). For past criticism/regret, use should have + past participle (You should have called).
Zero conditional (general truths & instructions) — If + present simple in the if-clause, present simple in the main clause. It describes a result that is always the same: scientific facts, rules, habits and automatic reactions. The two clauses can change places, and the comma disappears when the if-clause comes second. For instructions, the main clause is an imperative.

Adjectives

Comparatives (-er / more ... than) — Short adjectives (1–2 syllables): add -er. Long adjectives (3+ syllables): use more. Always use than before the second element being compared. Irregular: good→better, bad→worse, far→farther/further, little→less. Use fewer with countables, less with uncountables. Patterns: bigger and bigger (progressive increase); the more… the better (parallel comparatives).
Superlatives (the -est / the most) — Short adjectives: the + -est. Long adjectives: the most. Always use the with superlatives. Irregular: good→the best, bad→the worst, much/many→the most, little→the least. Never double up (✗ the most cheapest). Often paired with the present perfect (the best film I've ever seen).
Adjective order (opinion-size-age-color) — When several adjectives come before a noun, English keeps a fixed order: opinion, then size, age, shape, color, origin, material and purpose. No commas and no and inside the chain: a lovely little old round brown Italian wooden table. In real speech two or three adjectives is the usual maximum.

Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself...) — Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves) are used when subject and object are the same person, or for emphasis. They are never used where English normally uses a simple pronoun. By myself/himself… = alone/without help. They can also be indirect objects (I bought myself a coffee). Don't confuse with the reciprocal each other (two people → one another), and avoid the non-standard forms ✗ hisself, ✗ theirselves.
'one' / 'ones' (substitution) — Use one (singular) or ones (plural) to replace a noun already mentioned and avoid repetition. They must be accompanied by a determiner or adjective, and only replace COUNTABLE nouns (not uncountables: ✗ a cold one for water). One = indefinite (any one of a set); it = a specific, known thing. The one who… identifies a person.

Adverbs & negation

Adverbs of manner (-ly) — Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding -ly to an adjective. They describe how an action is performed and typically go after the verb (and object). Irregular: good → well, fast → fast, hard → hard. Beware false friends: hardly = almost not (≠ hard), lately = recently (≠ late). After linking verbs (be, seem, look, feel) use an ADJECTIVE, not an adverb (She looks beautiful, not beautifully).
too / enough — Too (= more than necessary/desirable) comes before adjectives and adverbs. Enough (= sufficient) comes after adjectives/adverbs but before nouns. Common patterns: too + adj + to-inf (too hot to drink), adj + enough + to-inf (old enough to vote). Use too much + uncountable, too many + countable. Don't confuse too (signals a problem) with very (neutral intensifier).
already / yet / just (with present perfect) — Already = something happened sooner than expected (affirmatives). Yet = expected but not happened (questions and negatives, end position). Just = very recently. Just/already go between have/has and the participle; yet goes at the end. Still + negative (I still haven't…) stresses ongoing impatience. American English often uses the past simple with these adverbs (I just ate. Did you eat yet?); British English prefers the present perfect. Both are correct.
Prepositions of time (in, on, at, for, since) — at + clock times and the expressions at night, at the weekend, at Christmas; on + days and dates; in + months, seasons, years and parts of the day (in the morning). For duration, for + a length of time and since + the point at which it started. American English says on the weekend, British English at the weekend; both are accepted here.
Prepositions of place & movement (in, on, at, to, into) — For position: in = inside an area or volume, on = on a surface or a line, at = a point, an address or a place seen as an event. For movement: to gives the destination, into movement to the inside of something, and onto movement to a surface.

Syntax & discourse

Question words + auxiliary — In indirect/object questions: question word + auxiliary + subject + verb. In subject questions (who/what is the subject): question word + verb, no auxiliary. Getting this order wrong is the main error. Choose the auxiliary by tense: do/does (present), did (past), is/are (continuous), have/has (present perfect), will (future). In INDIRECT questions there is no inversion: Can you tell me where she works? (statement order).
Sequencers (first, then, after that, finally) — Sequencers organize events in time order. First → Then/Next → After that → Finally/Lastly. They go at the start of a clause, followed by a comma. Meanwhile = at the same time (parallel action); eventually = after a long delay; after + noun/-ing (after finishing…). Formal lists use firstly, secondly, finally.
Defining relative clauses (who, which, that) — A defining relative clause identifies which person or thing is meant — it cannot be removed without changing the meaning. Use who/that for people, which/that for things, whose for possession, where for place, when for time. No comma before it. The pronoun can be OMITTED when it is the OBJECT (the book I read = the book that I read), and you must NOT add a resumptive pronoun (✗ the book that I read it).
Question tags (isn't it? don't you?) — A tag repeats the auxiliary of the sentence plus a pronoun subject: positive sentence, negative tag; negative sentence, positive tag. If there is no auxiliary, use do, does or did. Special forms: I am ... aren’t I?, Let’s ... shall we?, imperative ... will you?

Number & quantity

Quantifiers (much / many / a lot of) — Much + uncountable; many + plural countable (mainly in negatives and questions). A lot of / lots of work with both in affirmative statements. A lot of is more informal. Plenty of (= more than enough) and a great deal of (formal, uncountable) also exist. With there, match the verb to the noun (There weren't many people).
Ordinal numbers (first, second...) — Ordinal numbers express position in a sequence. Form: base number + -th (fourth, sixth…). Irregular: 1st first, 2nd second, 3rd third, 5th fifth, 8th eighth, 9th ninth, 12th twelfth. Abbreviations: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th. Tens change -y → -ieth (twenty → twentieth). Ordinals are required for dates (BrE: the fifth of May / AmE: May fifth), floors, centuries, and positions.

B1 — Threshold

Communicative independence · simple arguments · structured narrative

Nouns & articles

Articles: a/the/zero (systematic review) — A/an = first mention, singular, non-specific. The = known, specific, unique, second mention, superlatives. Zero article = general meaning with plural countables and uncountables. Specifics: a + profession (She's a doctor); the + musical instrument (play the piano), rivers (the Nile), ranges (the Alps), plural/common-noun countries (the USA, the Netherlands), nationality groups (the French); but NO article for individual mountains (Mount Everest), most countries (France), languages, and institutions-as-concept (in church, in hospital as a patient — BrE).
Compound nouns (bus stop, toothbrush) — Compound nouns join two or more words to create a new concept. They can be written as one word, hyphenated, or two words — check a dictionary. The main stress usually falls on the FIRST element (BUS stop), unlike an adjective + noun where the noun is stressed (a red CAR). The first element is normally a noun or gerund (swimming pool) and stays singular. To pluralize, add -s to the MAIN (last) noun: bus stops, toothbrushes — except when the head noun is first (passers-by, mothers-in-law).

Verbs & tenses

Present perfect continuous — Form: have/has been + verb-ing. Emphasizes the ongoing nature or recent duration of an action that started in the past and connects to the present. Common with for and since. It focuses on the ACTIVITY/duration, whereas the present perfect SIMPLE focuses on completion/result (I've been reading = activity; I've read it = finished). Stative verbs (know, like, want) have no continuous form — use the simple (I've known her for years, not been knowing).
Past perfect — Form: had + past participle (same for all persons). Use it for an action completed before another past action. It sets up a 'past before the past' sequence. It is common in reported speech (He said he had seen it). The continuous form (had been + -ing) stresses duration before the past point. With before/after, the order is already clear, so the past simple is often enough.
Future continuous — Form: will be + verb-ing, unchanged for every person (I will be working, they'll be waiting; negative won't be working). Use it for an action in progress at a stated future moment, for something that will happen anyway as part of the normal course of events, and for polite enquiries about people's plans.
used to / would (past habits) — Used to + base verb describes past states or habits that no longer exist. Would + base verb describes repeated past actions only (not states). Neither is used for single past events. Questions/negatives drop the -d: Did you use to…? / I didn't use to… Don't confuse with be used to + -ing (= accustomed, present) or get used to + -ing (= becoming accustomed).
Passive voice (present & past) — Form: be (conjugated) + past participle. Use the passive when the agent is unknown, unimportant, or when you want to foreground the action/receiver. The agent may be added with by. To make a passive, the active OBJECT becomes the subject. Other tenses follow the same pattern: continuous = is/are being + pp (is being built), perfect = has/have been + pp (has been broken), future = will be + pp (will be announced). Only transitive verbs (with an object) have a passive.
First conditional (real future) — If + present simple, will + base verb. Used for real, possible future situations. The if-clause uses present tense even though the meaning is future — never will in the if-clause. Unless = if not. Time clauses (when, as soon as, until, before) also take the present simple, not will. As long as / provided that = on condition that. The main clause can use a modal (might, could) instead of will.
Second conditional (hypothetical) — If + past simple, would + base verb. For imaginary/unlikely present or future situations. Use were (not was) after if in formal/written English for all persons. The main clause can use could (hypothetical ability) or might (possibility) instead of would. If I were you… is a common way to give advice.
Reported speech (statements) — In reported speech, verb tenses typically backshift (present→past, past→past perfect, will→would). Time and place references also change. The reporting verb is usually said (+ clause) or told (+ person + clause). Can→could, must→had to. Pronouns and time words shift too (I→he/she, now→then, today→that day). No backshift is needed when the reporting verb is present, or when the statement is a general truth / still true.
Gerunds vs infinitives (verb patterns) — Some verbs take a gerund (verb-ing), others an infinitive (to + verb), and some take both with different meanings. There is no shortcut — the pattern must be learned with each verb. After a PREPOSITION, always use the gerund (good at swimming). A gerund can be the SUBJECT (Swimming is fun). After causatives make/let and perception verbs (see, hear) use the BASE verb (She made him cry).
Past ability (could / was able to / managed to) — Could + base verb states a general ability that lasted over a period of past time (she could swim at four). For one particular occasion when the action actually succeeded, use was/were able to or managed to. With verbs of perception and thinking (see, hear, feel, understand, remember) could is normal even for single moments.
Phrasal verbs (separable & inseparable) — A phrasal verb is verb + particle, often with an idiomatic meaning. Separable ones allow either order with a noun object (turn off the light / turn the light off), but a pronoun object must go in the middle: turn it off. Inseparable ones keep verb and particle together: look after the baby, look after her.
Reported questions, commands & requests — In a reported question the word order becomes that of a statement, do/does/did disappears, and the sentence ends with a period: he asked where I lived. Yes/no questions need if or whether. Commands and requests use tell or ask + person + to + base verb, with not before to for the negative.

Adjectives

Gradable vs non-gradable adjectives — Gradable adjectives describe qualities on a scale (cold, big, happy) and take very/quite. Non-gradable adjectives are absolute or extreme (freezing, enormous, exhausted) and take absolutely/utterly/totally, not very. To soften a gradable adjective use a bit / a little (a bit cold) — not with extremes. Note quite: in BrE 'quite + non-gradable' = completely (quite brilliant), 'quite + gradable' = fairly (quite cold).
-ed vs -ing adjectives (bored / boring) — -ed adjectives describe how a PERSON feels. -ing adjectives describe the quality of the THING causing the feeling. Mixing them up is one of the most common intermediate errors.

Pronouns

Relative pronouns (whose, where, when) — Whose = possession (replaces 'his/her/their'). Where = place. When = time. They introduce both defining and non-defining relative clauses. Why follows reason. Whose also works for things (a company whose profits fell). Where/when/why can often be dropped or replaced informally by that, or expanded formally to preposition + which (where = in which). Don't confuse whose with who's (= who is).
Reciprocal pronouns (each other) — Each other (2 people) and one another (3+) express mutual actions. They go in the object position. Do not use a reflexive pronoun when the action is mutual. They follow verbs and prepositions but cannot be the subject. The possessive is each other's (They read each other's books).

Adverbs & negation

Adverbs of degree (quite, really, a bit) — Degree adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs: very/really (strong), quite/fairly/rather (medium), a bit/slightly (weak). Quite before a/an means 'rather'; before gradable adjectives it means 'moderately'. Use absolutely/utterly/completely with extreme adjectives, by far/easily with superlatives, and much/considerably with comparatives.
Comparative & superlative adverbs — Adverbs of manner form comparatives and superlatives with more/most. One-syllable adverbs use -er/-est (fast→faster, hard→harder). Irregular: well→better→best, badly→worse→worst, far→further→furthest. Use less + adverb for the opposite (less carefully). With than for comparatives, (the) … of all for superlatives.
Linking adverbs (however, therefore) — Linking adverbs connect ideas between sentences or clauses. However = contrast; therefore/consequently = result; moreover/furthermore = addition; nevertheless = concession; for example = exemplifying; on the other hand = the contrasting side; in other words = restating. They are usually followed by a comma (and a period or semicolon before them).

Syntax & discourse

Non-defining relative clauses — A non-defining relative clause adds extra, non-essential information about a noun already fully identified. It is always enclosed in commas. That cannot be used instead of who/which here, and the pronoun can never be omitted. Which can also refer back to a WHOLE clause (She passed, which surprised everyone = the fact that she passed).
Time clauses (when, while, as soon as) — For the future, time clauses use the present tense — never will. When = at the moment; while = during a period (used with a continuous tense); as soon as = immediately after. In the past, the same conjunctions take normal past tenses.
Reason & result (because, so, since) — Because (subordinating, reason clause) can begin or follow the main clause. So (coordinating, result) joins two main clauses. Since/as introduce a reason clause, often at the start. For a reason + NOUN use because of / due to / owing to. Formal RESULT connectors: therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, hence (with a semicolon or new sentence).
Purpose clauses (to / in order to / so that) — To/in order to + infinitive expresses purpose with the same subject. So that + clause is used when subjects differ or when adding can/could/will/would. So as to / in order to are more formal; NEGATIVE purpose = so as not to / in order not to + base verb (not 'to not'). Use for + -ing for the function of a THING, but to + verb for the purpose of an ACTION.

Number & quantity

few / a few / little / a little — A few/a little = a small but positive quantity ('some'). Few/little (no article) = a very small, almost insufficient quantity (negative nuance). Few with countable; little with uncountable. Quite a few means (counter-intuitively) 'a fairly LARGE number'. A little can also be an adverb softening adjectives/verbs (I'm a little tired). Article-less few/little are more formal and stress scarcity (Little is known…).
both / either / neither — Both = the two (affirmative). Either = one or the other / also used in negatives (= not one, not the other in the sense of 'both not'). Neither = not one and not the other. Correlatives: both…and, either…or, neither…nor. Both takes a plural verb; either/neither traditionally singular. Neither is already negative, so the verb stays affirmative (Neither is right, not 'isn't'). In neither…nor, the verb agrees with the NEARER subject.

B2 — Upper-Intermediate

Full autonomy · arguing · nuancing · register

Nouns & articles

Abstract & collective nouns (agreement) — Collective nouns (team, family, committee, government) can take singular or plural verb in British English depending on whether the group is seen as a unit or as individuals. American English prefers singular. Abstract nouns (trust, courage, knowledge, advice, information) are usually UNCOUNTABLE: no plural and no a/an. To count them use a quantifier (a piece of advice, two pieces of information).
Article nuances (institutions, generalizations) — Use zero article with institutions when referring to their purpose: in hospital (as patient), at school (as student). Use the for a specific building. Generic reference: the + singular countable can generalize. Other conventions: the + musical instrument (play the piano) but zero for sports/meals (play tennis, have lunch); the for named oceans/rivers/ranges/museums/unique roles (the Atlantic, the Louvre, the Pope) but zero for individual mountains and most universities (Mount Everest, Oxford). Varieties differ for hospital and university: British in hospital, at university; American in the hospital, in college. The exercises here use school, church and prison, where both varieties drop the article.

Verbs & tenses

Future perfect — Form: will have + past participle. Use it for an action that will be completed by a specific future time. Often used with by (by Friday, by the time…). The continuous form will have been + -ing stresses duration up to a future point. Contrast with the future continuous (in progress AT a future point, not completed before it).
Third conditional (past unreal) — If + past perfect, would have + past participle. For imaginary situations in the past — things that did not happen (so it often expresses regret/criticism). The main clause can use could/might have. In formal English the if-clause can invert: Had I known… = If I had known. Related: If only / I wish + past perfect.
Mixed conditionals — Each half keeps the form of its own time. Past cause with a present result: If + past perfect … would + base verb (now). Present or permanent cause with a past result: If + past simple … would have + past participle. Time markers such as now or yesterday show which mix you need.
Passive (all tenses; passive reporting) — Passive can be formed in any tense: is done, was done, has been done, will be done, is being done etc. Passive reporting structures: It is said that… / He is thought to be… distance the speaker from the claim. An indirect object can become the subject (She was given a medal). Phrasal verbs keep their particle in the passive (He was looked after).
Modals of deduction (must/might/can't have) — Must have + p.p. = almost certain past deduction. Might/may have + p.p. = possible. Can't/couldn't have + p.p. = impossible. These express degrees of certainty about past events. For the PRESENT, drop 'have': must be (certain), might/could be (possible), can't be (impossible). Should = expectation. Scale: must > should > might/could > can't.
Causative (have/get something done) — Have/get + object + past participle means you arrange for someone else to do something for you. Get is slightly more informal. Get + object + to-infinitive = persuade someone to do something. Have + person + base verb = arrange (She had the plumber fix it). Compare make (force) and let (permit), both + base verb. The same structure can describe something bad/unplanned (She had her bag stolen).
'wish' / 'if only' — Wish/if only + past simple = present wish (something is different now). Wish/if only + past perfect = past regret. Wish + would = complaint/desire for change in someone else's behavior (not your own). Use were (all persons) and could for unreal ability.

Adjectives

Adjectives as nouns (the rich, the unemployed) — The + adjective (no noun) can refer to a whole group of people: the rich, the poor, the elderly, the unemployed. These are always PLURAL in meaning (verb takes plural) and have no -s. For ONE person, use a … person/man/woman (a poor person). Past participles (the injured, the dead) and nationality adjectives (the French, the British) work the same way.
Order & modification of adjectives (intensifiers) — At B2 the question is no longer which intensifier is grammatical but which one collocates: English pairs certain adverbs with certain adjectives by habit. Deeply goes with feelings (deeply moved, deeply concerned), highly with evaluations and probabilities (highly unlikely, highly recommended), bitterly with disappointment and cold (bitterly disappointed, bitterly cold), utterly and absolutely with extreme adjectives (utterly ridiculous, absolutely exhausted), painfully with shy and slow, wildly with popular and exaggerated. Very is safe with gradable adjectives (very tired) but odd with extreme ones (✗ very ridiculous).

Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns (someone, anything, no one) — Compound pronouns: some- (affirmative), any- (questions/negatives/conditional), no- (negative meaning). They combine with -one/-body (person), -thing (object), -where (place). Singular verb required. Don't combine a negative verb with a no- word (double negative — use any-). In affirmatives, any- can add emphasis (She'll eat anything). Refer back with singular gender-neutral their (Someone left their bag).
'it' & 'there' as dummy subjects — It as a dummy subject: weather, time, distance, feelings, it-clefts. There: existence. Neither refers to a real entity. Both fill the grammatically required subject slot. It is also anticipatory — standing in for a delayed to-infinitive or that-clause (It is easy to learn / It is important that…) and for impersonal passives (It was said that…). After there, the verb agrees with the REAL subject that follows (there is a problem / there are problems).

Adverbs & negation

Adverb position & focus adverbs (only, even) — Focus adverbs (only, even, just, also, merely, simply) go immediately before the word or phrase they modify. Moving them changes the meaning entirely. Position of other adverbs: FREQUENCY (always, never) goes before the main verb but after be/auxiliaries; MANNER (quickly, well) goes at the end; TIME (yesterday, soon) at the end or front. A negative/limiting adverb at the FRONT triggers subject-auxiliary inversion (Never had I seen…). Fast/hard are adverbs with no -ly.
Negative & limiting adverbs (hardly, rarely) — Hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom, barely, never carry negative meaning and require no additional not. When placed at the front of a clause for emphasis, inversion of subject and auxiliary is required. Paired structures: No sooner … than, Hardly/Scarcely … when (= as soon as). Little did he know = he didn't know at all. Not only … but also inverts the first clause. These are formal/literary.

Syntax & discourse

Concession (although, despite, in spite of) — Although/even though/though + clause (verb required). Despite/in spite of + noun phrase or -ing (no verb). All introduce a contrasting idea that makes the main clause surprising. Despite/in spite of + the fact that + clause is the way to keep them before a full clause. However/nevertheless are linking adverbs (new sentence + comma). Note: NOT despite of (but in spite OF is correct); though can end a sentence informally (= however).
Cause & result connectors (consequently, due to) — Formal cause and result go beyond because and so. Prepositions: owing to, due to, as a result of + noun phrase (owing to the strike). Adverbs of result: therefore, consequently, thus, hence (hence often stands before a bare noun: hence the delay). Verbs: result in, lead to, bring about, give rise to go from cause to effect; result from, stem from, arise from go from effect to cause.
Cleft sentences (It was... / What...) — Cleft sentences split a simple sentence into two clauses to emphasize one element. It-cleft: It was John who called. Wh-cleft (pseudo-cleft): What she needs is rest. Variants: All I want is peace (restriction); reversed pseudo-cleft puts the focus first (A vacation is what I need). The focus can be a subject, object, time, place, reason, or a verb phrase (What she did was leave).
Participle clauses — A participle clause (present or past) replaces a subordinate clause for conciseness. The implied subject must be the same as the main clause subject (otherwise it 'dangles'). Present participle = active/simultaneous; past participle = passive; having + p.p. = completed before the main action; negative = not + participle. They also reduce relative clauses (the man standing there = who is standing).

Number & quantity

Quantifiers review (all/most/none of) — All/most/some/none of + determiner + noun for specific groups. Verb agreement: none of traditionally takes singular verb but plural is common; all of + plural noun → plural verb. Every/each + SINGULAR noun + SINGULAR verb; every views the group as a whole (general), each focuses on individuals one by one. Each of + plural noun → singular verb. All can sit mid-position after a subject pronoun (They all came).

C1 — Advanced

Extended mastery · style · implicature · complexity

Nouns & syntax

Complex noun phrases (pre/post-modification) — A complex noun phrase contains a head noun with pre-modifiers (adjectives, nouns) and/or post-modifiers (relative clauses, participle phrases, prepositional phrases). Academic writing favors heavy noun-phrase pre-modification. Post-modifiers also include infinitive phrases (the need to improve), that-clauses (the belief that it failed), and apposition (the CEO, Michael Jones). Noun + noun stacking is common (government health policy).
Nominalization (academic style) — Nominalization converts verbs and adjectives into nouns (decide → decision, significant → significance). Academic writing uses nominalizations to achieve formality, compress information, and foreground actions as concepts. Common suffixes: -tion/-sion (decision), -ment (development), -ance/-ence (performance), -ity/-cy (accuracy), -ness (darkness), -ization (globalization). They pair naturally with the passive. Overuse makes prose dense and bureaucratic.

Verbs & modes

Inversion after negative adverbials (Never have I...) — When a negative or limiting adverbial (never, rarely, seldom, hardly, scarcely, no sooner, little, not only, only then, at no time, under no circumstances) is fronted for emphasis, the subject and auxiliary invert — like a question. If there is no auxiliary, use do/does/did. Note the pairs no sooner … than and hardly/scarcely … when. The structure is formal/literary.
Subjunctive & 'were to' / 'be to' — The subjunctive survives in formulaic phrases (if I were you, be that as it may, God save the King) and in formal/written that-clauses after verbs/adjectives of demand, recommendation, suggestion (insist, recommend, vital, essential): base form for ALL persons, no -s, no 'to'. BrE often prefers should + base verb instead. Were to makes a condition more remote; formal conditionals can invert (Should he call… = if he should call; Were she to… = if she were to).
Future in the past — To describe a future seen from a past viewpoint, use was/were going to, would, was/were about to, was/were to. The choice depends on the type of future: would (reported will/prediction), was going to (intention — often unfulfilled), was about to / on the point of (imminent), was to / was due to (scheduled/destined). Reported must → would have to.
Modal nuances (habits, willingness, criticism) — Will/would can express characteristic behavior or habitual tendency (often irritating). Will = present habit; would = past habit; will + negative = refusal. Other nuances: should = advice OR expectation, and should have + p.p. = criticism/regret about the past; would rather = preference; may/might = possibility or formal permission (may slightly stronger/more formal); may well = strong possibility.
Advanced aspect (perfect vs simple contrasts) — The perfect links an event to a later point; the simple form presents it as a closed fact. I have lived here for ten years (still here) vs I lived here for ten years (finished). She has written three novels keeps the count open; she wrote three novels closes the period. He has gone to Paris (he is there) vs he has been to Paris (he came back). The past perfect steps back before a past point (the meeting had already started); the future perfect looks back from a future point (I will have seen him by Friday). The continuous perfect stresses the activity, the simple perfect the result: I've been reading your report vs I've read your report.

Adjectives

Adjective complementation (keen on, eager to) — Many adjectives require specific prepositions or complementation patterns: adjective + on/about/of/at/for/with + noun/-ing, or adjective + to-infinitive, or adjective + that-clause (sure/glad/convinced that…). These must be learned individually. In 'tough-movement' (easy/difficult/impossible + to-inf), the subject is really the OBJECT of the infinitive: She is easy to please = it is easy to please her. Compare afraid of + noun (a thing feared) vs afraid to + verb (hesitant).

Pronouns & reference

Cohesion & substitution (do so, such) — Cohesive devices replace repeated content: do so replaces a verb phrase, so replaces a clause after think/say/hope, such replaces a noun phrase. Cohesion also works through REFERENCE — pronouns (Tom → he) and demonstratives (this/that, which can point back to a whole clause) — through noun substitution (one/ones), ellipsis, connectors, and LEXICAL links (synonyms: car → vehicle). Reference back = anaphoric; forward = cataphoric. (Cohesion = the formal links; coherence = overall meaning.)
Ellipsis (auxiliary & to-infinitive) — Ellipsis omits predictable linguistic material. In English: auxiliary ellipsis (Can you come? — I can.), to-infinitive ellipsis (I'd like to but I can't afford to.). The elided verb is recoverable from context. Related: do-substitution (She arrived before I did = arrived); echo responses So do I (positive) / Neither do I (negative); reduced clauses (if asked = if I am asked); imperatives drop the subject you.

Adverbs & modality

Epistemic adverbs (apparently, presumably) — Epistemic adverbs (apparently, presumably, evidently, supposedly, allegedly) indicate the speaker's degree of certainty or the source of information. They scope over the whole clause and typically go in front-position, mid-position, or end-position. Nuances: apparently = hearsay/it seems; presumably = logical inference; evidently/clearly/obviously = clear from evidence/known; allegedly = claimed but unproven. Distinguish from COMMENT adverbs (fortunately, unfortunately, surprisingly), which show the speaker's attitude to the situation rather than certainty.
Comment & viewpoint adverbs (frankly, technically) — Comment adverbs (frankly, honestly, surprisingly, unfortunately, wisely) evaluate the whole clause. Viewpoint adverbs (technically, legally, financially) restrict the truth of the statement to a specific domain. Both are typically comma-separated and can go in front, mid, or end position. Viewpoint adverbs often combine with speaking (technically/legally/broadly speaking). Distinguish from epistemic adverbs (apparently, presumably), which mark certainty rather than the speaker's attitude.

Syntax & discourse

Fronting & emphasis — Fronting moves an element to the start of the sentence for contrast or emphasis. Some fronted elements force subject–auxiliary inversion: strong prohibitions (Under no circumstances should you…, On no account must…), not until + clause (the inversion is in the main clause), only + time clause (Only when the rain stopped did we leave), and negative agreement with nor / neither (Nor do I). A fronted object or prepositional phrase does not invert: That I don't believe. To everyone's surprise, she won. The concessive pattern adjective + though / as + subject + verb (Cold though it was…) is formal.
Cleft & pseudo-cleft (advanced) — Beyond the basic it was X that… and what I need is… (see B2), advanced clefts use other heads: the reason why…, the place where…, the way…, the thing that…, and the discourse opener what happened was (that)…. They announce what kind of information is coming (a reason, a place, a manner) and push it to the end of the sentence, where it carries the focus. In speech the that is often dropped or replaced by a comma: What happened was, the train was late. The focus can also be a whole action: What you should do is apologize.
Discourse markers (moreover, nevertheless) — Discourse markers organize formal written text at a macro level. They signal addition (moreover, furthermore, in addition), contrast (nevertheless, however, on the other hand), exemplification (namely, for instance), and summary (in sum, to conclude, all in all, on balance). Others signal concession (having said that, to be fair), reformulation (in other words, that is to say), and opening (first of all, to begin with). Spoken English adds actually, you know, I mean, right.
Hedging & academic register — Hedging limits the strength of claims, which is expected in academic writing. Use modal verbs (may, might, could), semi-modals (tend to, appear to), adverbs (perhaps, possibly, apparently), and distancing verbs (seem, appear, suggest), plus impersonal structures (it would appear that…, one could argue…, it has been suggested that…). Hedges can stack (the data may seem to suggest). But do NOT hedge established facts/definitions.

C2 — Mastery

Absolute precision · style · variation · metalanguage

Nouns & stylistics

Genitive & possession nuances (of vs 's; double genitive) — Use 's for persons and personalized entities; use of for inanimate objects and formal structures. The double genitive (a friend of John's) implies choice from a group. Time and distance take 's (yesterday's news, a moment's thought, a stone's throw). After a genitive, the noun (shop/house) is often omitted (go to the baker's). Plural genitive: regular plural → apostrophe only (the students'); irregular plural → 's (the children's).
Marked noun forms (foreign plurals: criteria, phenomena) — Learned borrowings from Greek and Latin retain their original plural forms at C2 level. The singular/plural distinction is often confused in usage. Patterns: Latin -um → -a (datum/data, bacterium/bacteria), -us → -i (stimulus/stimuli, alumnus/alumni); Greek -on → -a (criterion/criteria, phenomenon/phenomena), -is → -es (analysis/analyses, thesis/theses). These plurals take a PLURAL verb (the data are). Some have two accepted plurals (indexes/indices, appendixes/appendices).

Verbs — full mastery

All tenses & aspects (controlled production) — At C2 the challenge is not forming tenses but choosing them consistently through a whole text. The practice set is one story told in fifteen gaps: past simple for the events, past continuous for the background, past perfect and past perfect continuous for what came before, reported speech with its backshift (would, had worked), present simple for schedules and habits, present continuous for what is happening now, future perfect for completion by a deadline, and a third conditional for what did not happen. Read the whole sentence before choosing: the time words decide.
Rare/literary structures (inversion in conditionals) — Formal and literary registers allow the omission of if with inversion: Had I known (= If I had known), Were I to go (= If I were to go), Should you need (= If you should need). Other elevated forms: the OPTATIVE subjunctive for wishes/blessings (May he rest in peace; God save the King; Would that she were here); lest + subjunctive (negative purpose); fronted degree + inversion (So great was his joy that…); and fixed idioms (Far be it from me, Come what may, Suffice it to say).
Tense shifts in narrative & backshift subtleties — In literary narrative, the past simple is the default. Historic present (present tense used for dramatic effect) signals stylistic choice. Backshift in reported speech can be omitted when the reported content is still true. Within past narrative, the past simple FOREGROUNDS events (advances the story), the past continuous gives BACKGROUND, and the past perfect marks events PRIOR to the narrative moment. The 'literary present' is used to discuss what happens in a text (Austen explores…).
Aspectual nuance (stative vs dynamic, habitual) — Some verbs are grammatically stative in one meaning and dynamic in another (see a doctor / I'm seeing her tonight; have a car / I'm having lunch). Miscategorization produces ungrammatical continuous forms. Aspect (HOW an action unfolds) is separate from tense: PERFECTIVE views an action as a whole (she read it); IMPERFECTIVE views it as ongoing/repeated (she was reading); HABITUAL past = used to / would; CONTINUATIVE = have/had been + -ing (still going); keep + -ing = persistent (often annoying) repetition.

Adjectives — extreme cases

Adjective compounds & hyphenation — Pre-nominal compound adjectives are hyphenated: a well-known author, a five-year-old child, a thought-provoking speech. When predicate (after a verb), hyphens are usually dropped: the author is well known. Common patterns: noun + present participle (award-winning), adverb/adjective + past participle (well-lit, long-established), noun + adjective (risk-free, user-friendly), and phrasal (once-in-a-lifetime). In number compounds the unit noun stays SINGULAR (a 40-page report, a three-year-old child).
Adjectives in fixed expressions & idioms — Many adjectives appear in fixed collocations and idioms that defy compositional interpretation. These must be learned as whole phrases — the adjective often loses its literal sense. Some serve as INTENSIFIERS (dead certain, flat broke). The exact adjective is fixed: 'in hot water' ≠ 'in warm water'; 'a narrow escape' ≠ 'a slim escape'.

Pronouns — marginal cases

Generic & impersonal 'one' / 'you' / 'they' — Generic reference can use one (formal, BrE), you (informal, universal), or they (when referring to authorities or people in general). One is consistent throughout: one/one's/oneself (don't switch to their in strict formal use). They say… = it is said / people say (hearsay). Keep generic pronouns consistent within a sentence (one…one, you…you).
Logical & anticipatory 'it' — It is an empty subject in three families: dummy it for weather, time, distance and cost (It is raining. It took three hours.); anticipatory it, which holds the subject slot while the real subject, an infinitive or a that-clause, goes to the end (It is important to try. It was obvious that she lied.); and impersonal passives (It is said that…). The practice set turns these structures into one another: It seems that he has left → He seems to have left (raising), It is said that he is rich → He is said to be rich, That she resigned surprised nobody → It surprised nobody that she resigned, and I find it hard to believe that… with object it.

Adverbs & style

Stylistic inversion & rhetorical syntax — Literary and descriptive English can put a place or direction phrase first and the subject after the verb: In the corner stood an old piano. Away flew the birds. Here comes the bus. This locative inversion works with intransitive verbs of position or movement (sit, lie, stand, hang, come, go) and never uses do. A fronted degree phrase also inverts: So strong was the wind that trees fell. Such was the noise that no one could speak (+ a result clause with that). Negative-adverb inversion (Never had I…) has its own topic.
Pragmatics: irony, implicature, understatement — C2 competence includes interpreting and producing pragmatic meaning beyond the literal: irony (saying the opposite), understatement (saying less), implicature (meaning more than stated). Context and intonation are essential. Litotes = understatement via negation of the opposite (not bad = good). Grice's maxims of cooperation — Quantity, Quality, Relation, Manner — explain scalar implicature (some = not all). Indirect speech acts give an utterance a force different from its literal form (It's getting late = please leave).

Syntax & metalanguage

Grammatical metalanguage — At C2, learners can analyze, describe, and discuss grammatical structures using precise linguistic terminology: morpheme, parse, clause, constituent, head, complement, modifier, theme, rheme, cohesion, deixis. Key fields: morphology (word structure), syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meaning), pragmatics (meaning in context). A transitive verb takes an object; an intransitive one does not; a copula/linking verb takes a complement.
Register & variation (BrE/AmE, formal/informal) — Register is the variety of language chosen for a specific context. Dimensions: formality, field, tenor. BrE/AmE differ systematically in vocabulary (lift/elevator), spelling (colour/color), grammar (BrE collective plural), and idiom. Formal register favors full forms (no contractions), Latinate vocabulary (assist, commence, contact), nominalization, and the passive; informal favors contractions, phrasal verbs, and colloquial words (help, start, get in touch, gonna). For the full list of spelling, vocabulary and grammar differences, open the American vs British English guide at the top of this page.
Disambiguating complex sentences — Long sentences can be structurally ambiguous. Disambiguation strategies: punctuation, word choice, pronoun reference clarity, appositive placement, and restructuring. Identifying the source of ambiguity is the first step. Types: LEXICAL (a word with several meanings — bank), STRUCTURAL/syntactic (how phrases attach — PP attachment, gerund vs modifier), REFERENTIAL (unclear pronoun — she), and SCOPE (only/not/all applying to different parts). In speech, prosody (stress, pausing) resolves much of it.
Formal written rhetoric & cohesion — Effective formal writing combines grammatical accuracy, lexical precision, cohesive devices (reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions), and macro-structural organization (topic sentences, signposting, paragraph unity). Useful devices: anaphoric reference back (as argued above, the foregoing, the former/the latter) and cataphoric reference forward (the following, as will be shown); rhetorical inversion (Not only are the results significant, but…); formal concession (notwithstanding).

ESL — English grammar map A1–C2 with step-by-step lessons

Index of grammar points — A1 to C2

A1 — Discovery

Nouns & articles

Verbs & tenses

Adjectives

Pronouns

Adverbs & negation

Syntax & discourse

Number & quantity

A2 — Elementary

Nouns & articles

Verbs & tenses

Adjectives

Pronouns

Adverbs & negation

Syntax & discourse

Number & quantity

B1 — Threshold

Nouns & articles

Verbs & tenses

Adjectives

Pronouns

Adverbs & negation

Syntax & discourse

Number & quantity

B2 — Upper-Intermediate

Nouns & articles

Verbs & tenses

Adjectives

Pronouns

Adverbs & negation

Syntax & discourse

Number & quantity

C1 — Advanced

Nouns & syntax

Verbs & modes

Adjectives

Pronouns & reference

Adverbs & modality

Syntax & discourse

C2 — Mastery

Nouns & stylistics

Verbs — full mastery

Adjectives — extreme cases

Pronouns — marginal cases

Adverbs & style

Syntax & metalanguage